Essay on slyvia plath - 618 Words

nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Sylvia Plaths quot;Mirror,quot; shows a truly thoughtful look into the different sights and feelings a mirror would have if it were a live conscious being, unable to lie. By showing the thoughts and emotions that a mirror would emit, Plath makes you look inward towards how you present yourself not only to your mirror but also to yourself. This is an eye-opening poem because of its truthful descriptions of the relationship between the inner feelings of people and how their outward appearances that they portray of themselves affect them in and out of the public realm. Examples of this are put throughout the poem quot;Mirror,quot; and can be found in just about every line of the poem.†¦show more content†¦nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The next section of the poem introduces a woman into the life of the mirror. She look toward the mirror seeking to find what she truly wants to discover (beauty), and the mirror truthfully reflects back to her what it sees. She turns from the reflection as if to look for the quot;truthquot; in something else, not excepting what she has just seen. Unable to find it, the mirror sees her agitation and depression after seeing her true self within it. She is always looking into the mirror to make sure everything is perfect and to put everything in its place, so to speak. In this the mirror, as the years seemingly pass, sees the young girl transform from her youth into an old woman and lose all that she has fretted over and over about throughout her life. Each day, she is reminded by the mirror of her lost youth and beauty that was once projected back at her so faithfully. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The mirror in the poem is a representation of the truths in life that as a person is difficult to come to terms with in ones self. The womans view of herself and her reluctance to accept her natural and God-given beauty, shows how we all (as a society or as an individual) find it hard to accept ourselves for who we truly are. How we try to make ourselves into a conformed object of quot;popular beautyquot; based upon our outward appearance, instead of going by how our personal feelings that come from within us.

Factors Affecting Human Development During Phases Of...

The process of nondisjunction can occur in human development during phases in meiosis and mitosis. The irregularity results in an abnormal amount of chromosomes in the produced cells and causes alterations in those who are affected. Nondisjunctional consequences can be seen in these five examples of genetic inheritance conditions discussed in this paper: Down syndrome, Patau’s syndrome, Edward’s syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, and Turner’s syndrome. The Mendelian principles of genetics developed by Gregor Mendel include the patterns of autosomal recessive and autosomal dominant. Autosomal dominant and recessive inheritance patterns can cause disorders such as: Marfan syndrome and Huntington disease from the inheritance of dominant†¦show more content†¦As a result, there are an extra amount or not enough sets of chromosomes in the cells created which causes disorders in those affected. The effects of nondisjunction include the following diseases: Down sy ndrome, Patau’s syndrome, Edward’s syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, and Turner’s syndrome. Mendelian and non-Mendelian inheritance patterns determine how certain traits are passed on to the next generation. Mendelian patterns are autosomal dominant inheritance, which causes Marfan syndrome and Huntington disease, and autosomal recessive inheritance, which causes cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell disease. Non-Mendelian patterns of inheritance include polygenic and mitochondrial inheritance. Polygenic inheritance is seen in the inheritance of traits like skin color and height and can cause heart diseases and cancer. In mitochondrial inheritance, also known as maternal inheritance, DNA in the mitochondria is passed down primarily from the mother. This form of inheritance causes some disorders like Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy and Kearns-Sayre syndrome may occur. Epigenetic inheritance is an unusual process in which epigenetic tags created by a parent’s exp erience can be passed on to their offspring. Nondisjunction describes the process in which the chromosomes of a cell do not divide in the correct manner during meiosis and mitosis. The abnormality occur in one of three ways due to the incorrect division of

I Am From free essay sample

I am from downy off- white sheets;From Pinesol Overdone Bleach.I am from the hard part of a place no one knows from a broken home with hard goals. I am from a mother who loved me lots never will her love be forgot. I am from Chicken Sandwiches with Ranch inside with a broken heart I cant hide,from Micheal Bobby. I am from wrong doers accusers. From not telling us what our families future lie. To Nothing But Painful Crys. I am from Black White, going to church when feeling guilty giving our life to christ over over again. Im from Lashawns House with Chicken Noodle Soup Beanie Weenie ( thats beans hot dogs if you dont understand). From the Auntie when I was young who told me I was beautiful would be brillant beyond my beliefs. The cousin I lost young inspired me to live life as their there is no tomorrow the sister that I wished was mine once inspired me to be the youre feeling now. We will write a custom essay sample on I Am From or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page ME I am spiral circle frames,strapbooks of unwanted pain,and photo albums of time that lasted all of five seconds, from angels that are gone, to people that wont trueful wont be missed, animals that held our hearts still do. I am from angry sad people who are wearing down day after day. I am from normal people just like You

Wuthering Heights By Emily Bronte Essays - British Films

Wuthering Heights By Emily Bronte Love is an amazing emotion. People spend much of their lives searching for true love. When true love is found, people will do everything possible to hold on to and cherish it for eternity. It is said that true love can only be found once in a lifetime that is filled with intense everlasting emotions. A classic example of this powerful emotion is displayed by the characters Heathcliff and Catherine Earnshaw in Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights. Wuthering Heights examines a passionate and overwhelming love between its central characters, Cathy and Heathcliff. Their love is profound and filled with passion unlike any other. Its intensity builds from their childhood until the untimely death of Catherine. The extent of this love is exemplified during Heathcliff and Catherine's interactions with each other, during Catherine's statements to Nelly, and during Catherine's death where Heathcliff and Catherine embrace for the last time. When Catherine and Heathcliff were young, they would ?run away to the moors in the morning and remain there all day?(44). They spent a lot of time together playing like children. It is in this time that they create their everlasting bond. Catherine and Heathcliff spend almost every waking hour together and inevitably fall in love. Whenever Catherine and Heathcliff talk about their love, their tone is high and wild. No words could possibly express the great passion they share, yet it becomes obvious in their ?interactions together?. At one point, Catherine stays at Thrushcross Grange for five weeks and comes back a different woman and her appearance seems more refined and polished. She has been influenced by the Lintons, particularly Edgar who she has developed an infatuation with. She has changed and ?seems? to look at Heathcliff in a different manner. Catherine says to him ?Why how very black and cross you look! and how-how funny and grim!?(52). Heathcliff can't believe his ears. He is so angry that he refuses to shake hands with her: ?I shall not stand to be laughed at, I shall not bear it?(52). Heathcliff wonders later if she misses him: ?Do you suppose she has nearly forgotten me? Every thought she spends on Linton, she spends a thousand on me?(149). The thought of Catherine loving another is unfathomable to Heathcliff, but he is convinced that she still loves him more. Here again, even when there is not an obvious display of love, it lies just below the surface of their interactions. Another side of the love shared between Catherine and Heathcliff is revealed in statements by Catherine to the servant Nelly Dean: ?Whatever souls are made of, his and mine are the same...Nelly I am Heathcliff?(182). Catherine loves Heathcliff so much that she feels that they share the same soul. Nothing can ever break this bond. Catherine herself then compares her love for Edgar and her love for Heathcliff: ?My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time will change it...My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath-a source of little visible delight, but necessary?(82). It is as though she realizes the superficial love she has for Edgar and the eternal love she has for Heathcliff. Catherine knows she is about to marry the wrong man. What she does not realize is that this mistake will eventually bring about her demise. While Catherine layed on her deathbed, she is visited by Heathcliff. In this last interaction, they throw accusations of betrayal at each other with fiery intensity. In Catherine's delirium, she realizes her mistake of marrying Edgar, but knows now there is nothing she can do about it. She in on the verge of death, and deeply regrets betraying her heart: Why did you despise me? Why did you betray your own heart Cathy? I have not one word of comfort-you deserve this. You have killed yourself. Yes, you may kiss me and cry; and wring out my kisses and tears...you loved me-then what right had you to leave me? I have not broken you heart...and in breaking it, you have broken mine(161). Heathcliff is clearly angry at Catherine but he still loves her. He embraces her before he leaves, wishing that he could just hold her forever. After Catherine dies, Heathcliff becomes very distraught and feels that he cannot survive alone. He curses her spirit out of anger and betrayal: ?May she wake in torment...May you not rest as long as I am living...Oh God! It is unutterable! I cannot live without my life! I cannot live without my soul?(167). Heathcliff does not want her soul to

Government Internet Intervention Essays - Content-control Software

Government Internet Intervention Government Internet Intervention The Internet is a method of communication and a source of information that is becoming more popular among those who are interested in, and have the time to surf the information superhighway. The problem with much information being accessible to this many people is that some of it is deemed inappropriate for minors. The government wants censorship, but a segment of the population does not. The Internet should not be considered a bad source for people, considering all the uses and information it distributes. During the past decade, our society has become based solely on the ability to move large amounts of information across large distances quickly. Computerization has influenced everyone's life. The natural evolution of computers and this need for ultra-fast communications has caused a global network of interconnected computers to develop. This global net allows a person to send E-mail across the world in mere fractions of a second, and enables even the common person to access information worldwide. With the advances with software that allows users with a sound card to use the Internet as a carrier for long distance voice calls and video conferencing, this network is the key to the future development of technologies. At present this net is the image of the First Amendment: freedom of speech. It is a place where people can speak their mind without being reprimanded for what they say, or how they choose to say it. Recently, Congress has been considering passing laws that will make it a crime punishable by jail to send vulgar language over the net. The government wants to maintain control over this new form of communication, and they are trying to use the protection of children as a smoke screen to pass laws that will allow them to regulate and censor the Internet, while banning techniques that could eliminate the need for regulation. Censorship of the Internet threatens to destroy its freelance atmosphere, while methods such as encryption could help prevent the need for government intervention (Levy 56). The current body of laws existing today in America does not apply well to the Internet. Is the Internet like a bookstore, where servers cannot be expected to review every title? Well, according to an article written by Michael Miller in PC Magazine, The Internet is much more like going into a book store and choosing to look at adult magazines (Miller 75). The Internet differs from other forms of media. In that one cannot just happen upon a vulgar site without first, either entering a complicated address following a link from another source, or by clicking on the agreement statement at the beginning of the site acknowledging that one is of the legal age of 18. This lawless atmosphere bothered many people. One such person is Nebraska Senator James Exon (D), who is one of the founding fathers of the Telecommunications Decency Act of 1996 which regulates any obscene or indecent material via the Internet to anyone under 18 years of age.? Exon's bill would also according to an article written by Steven Levy in an April 1995 issue of Newsweek magazine criminalize private mail, Levy also stated emotional I can call my brother on the phone and say anything-but if I say it on the Internet, it's illegal (Levy 55). One thing that Congress seems to have overlooked in its pursuit of regulations is that there are no clear boundaries from information being accessed over the Internet from over countries. All it takes is a click of a mouse to access, even if our government tried to regulate information accessed from other countries, we would have no control over what is posted in those countries, and we would have no practical way to stop it. Today's Internet works much like that of our own human brains. In that if one barrier or option is taken, your brain tries to find an alternate route or option. Today's Internet works on a similar design, if a major line between two servers say in two countries, is cut, then the Internet users will find another way around this obstacle. This process of obstacle avoidance makes it virtually impossible to separate an entire nation from indecent information in other

Sacagawea essays

Sacagawea essays Sacagawea was a crucial part of the Lewis and Clark expedition. At first she was just their translators 15 year old pregnant wife, but turned out to be much more. She was a very good icon for the natives that they were encountering. The natives saw a young native woman that had a young child and knew they were not in any danger. (pg 164) There were also many times when they didnt have any food and Sacagawea picked the right roots and berries to keep them from starvation. She was mostly noted for saving precious instruments, gathered food, recognized important geographical signposts, and interpreted on numerous occasions. (pg 165) Unfortunately the diaries that were kept by the others on the journey do not talk about her personality or her opinions on many things. In other hostile situations Sacagaweas presence calmed the men and seeing the woman was like a sign of peace. She was also very important because she knew her way around and was very useful as a navigator. Sacagawea was never really acknowledged by the party because, in my opinion, the diaries that were kept were never accurate when describing her. She was not in a lot of them or only talked about as a translators wife. I dont think she was ever compensated because she was a young woman and a part of a different culture. During that period of time, women were not as respected as men, unfortunately. I think if she was European and male, she would have gotten a ton more appreciation, but then if she was a man, she couldnt have done some of the things that she did. ...

Political Fiction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Political Fiction - Essay Example It can serve as a weapon towards change in a prevailing social system, tackle direct social and political repercussions, and discuss social struggle. Fiction can employ a particular topic and convey meaning and symbol related to an existing social and political system. The significance of fiction in history is not only confined within the realm of literature, but also explores the domain of politics. Fiction is seen to have worked its way in the political domain when Ignacio Salome's novel; Fontamara (1933) became popular upon gaining a favourable opinion of Mussolini's Fascism (Hanne 1994). Likewise, Alexander Solzhenitsyn's One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962) personally authorized for publication by Soviet leader Khrushchev in order to discredit Stalin, is another example of fiction being influenced by politics. However, this connection is not limited to external influencing but extends to the more important functions of fiction and politics - that of the conveyance of meaning and symbol of political phenomena through their depiction of the fiction. Likewise, the realm of politics is likened to a fiction, including all its elements from plot to setting, characters, and scenes. Such is made possible through political representation embo died in the fiction, especially when it is a political novel. The Problems with Political Representation It is from assumptions, biases, and news reports from which political beliefs are normally spring, which makes politics a drama that takes place in an assumed world in which people as spectators, do not directly observe or touch. Politics is a domain that consists of images and models wherein people usually translate the reported news, a task considered a necessary undertaking (Edelman 1995). Edelman says that this translation is seen in an example in which a report about American missiles were launched against Baghdad to punish the Iraqi dictator which creates meaning for everyone's repertoire on the images of images of military actions, Arabs, and how war brings devastation even to civilians. Political phenomena are thus not taken as they are without any political representation involved. More so, political representation is an essential part of how symbols and messages are conveyed, in that in another example set by Edelman (1995), a report about an increase or reduction of welfar e benefits brings images of cheaters and victims, as well as the possible consequences of such increase or reduction in relation to tax rates, and so on. These are examples of political images being drawn on the minds of people caused by attached meanings and assumptions on them. Political fiction often offers direct criticism of a present government, society, or political figure and presents an alternative of a sometimes fantastic reality, to what is being criticized (Edelman 1995). In doing such, political fiction often employs satire like The Simpsons in its depiction of the Western culture. It may be inferred that beliefs about politics and political discourse are products of art in which complex causal connection is drawn. This being said, Edelman states that art is a

The Marketing of Services Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Marketing of Services - Essay Example In addition, the economic down turn in the United Kingdom and the rest of the world caused increased levels of uncertainty and unemployment among the potential customers. The impact was a reduction in the consumption of the discretionary services offered by the enterprises in the sector. These changes in consumer behavior have affected several music retailers further aggravating the decline that was being experienced in an already underperforming sector. Prior to the financial crisis, various industry players had been facing financial difficulties due to the shifting interest of consumers from the musical services to computer games. However, things look bright as the sector continues to recover albeit at a slow pace. In the music retail industry, there are several retailers and enterprises covering the entire United Kingdom. They include single stores, independent outlets and chains of retail stores. This gives a wonderful mix of shops dealing in a variety of services. Services like instrument hire, music recording, repair of educational establishments, music teaching and site music facilities are offered in the shops. Some of the major competitors include Asda Group limited, HMV, Woolworth Group Plc, Virgin Books Ltd and Play.com. Others are AA Music, Academy Chimes Music and Ackerman Music Limited. Most of these retailers have been affected by the recent decline in purchases. HVM remains the leading retailer in the United Kingdom. Just like any other service sector, the music retail industry faces a number of problems coming from the nature of services which are offered (Dotchin & Oakland 2004). The five service characteristics are helpful in understanding some of these major problems. Perishability is perhaps one of the most difficult characteristic of the services in this sector to appreciate (Porters 2005). Services are highly perishable compered to physical products. This can be best understood when one considers the kind of services that enterprises such

Literary analysis of Cathedral Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Literary analysis of Cathedral - Essay Example Furthermore, the close relationship between his wife and the blind man that existed through the years provided additional ire and ill feelings. The transcending climax in the plot revealed how Robert, despite his blindness, was able to actually open the mind and constricted perspectives of the narrator through a unique experience of the cathedral. The characters of the story are the narrator, as the protagonist, whose instrumental point of view revealed details of the plot. As the narrator, he is considered a round character, where his personal views and feelings towards other characters are relevant in the development of the story. He foretold the experience of his wife, unnamed, yet instrumental in inviting Robert to their home. The wife is a flat character, through described in more details, as necessary to advance the events that are about to unfold. The blind man, Robert, is initially seen as the antagonist, providing conflict to the narrator due to the impending visit that he o penly disliked. The story told in a straightforward style, manifests diverse symbolism in terms of the cathedral, itself, as a manifestation of strong and steadfast faith as giving immense ability to transform a nonbeliever into a brand new person with optimistic perspectives. Through the cathedral as the impetus for discussion between Robert and the narrator, an eye-opening transformation for the narrator ensued.

Shape Memory Alloys Research

Shape Memory Alloys Research 1.1 General considerations When a regular metallic alloy is subjected to an external force greater than its elastic limit, it deforms plastically, i.e. the deformation persists after returning to the unloaded state. The Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) do not follow this behavior. At low temperatures, an SMA specimen may undergo a plastic deformation of about few percent, and then fully recover its initial shape that had at higher temperature by simple heating above a threshold temperature. Their ability to recover their form when the temperature is raised, makes this class of materials unique. This phenomenon has been discovered in 1938 by researchers working on the gold-cadmium alloys [Gilbertson (1994)]. The shape memory effect remained a laboratory curiosity until 1963, when the first industrial and medical applications appeared. 1.2 Martensitic Transformation The shape memory effect is based on the existence of a reversible phase transformation of thermoelastic martensitic type [Kurdjumov, Khandros (1949), Kumar, Lagoudas (2008)], between a microstructural state at high temperature (austenite phase) and a microstructural state at low temperature (martensite phase) [Patoor et al. (2006), Lagoudas et al. (2006)]. Austenite has in general a cubic crystal lattice, while martensite is of tetragonal, monoclinic, or orthorhombic crystal lattice. The transformation from one crystal lattice to the other occurs by distortion of the shear lattice does and not by atoms diffusion. This type of transformation is called martensitic transformation [Perkins (1975), Funakubo (1987), Otsuka, Wayman (1999)]. In reality, the matrenitic transformation in SMAs is a phase transformation of the first order, where there is co-existence of several phases, and there is presence of interfaces between the phases [Guà ©nin (1986)]. Historically, the term martensitic transformation describes the transformation of the austenite of steels (iron-carbon alloys) to martensite during a quenching. By extension, this term has been generalized to a large number of alloys whose phase transformations have certain characteristics typical of the transformation of steels [Rosa (2013)]. During martensitic transformation of a SMA, the crystal lattice of the material changes its shape. The microstructure of martensite is characterized by a change in shape and by the difference in volume, which exists between matrensitic and austenitic phase [Duerig et al. (1990)]. Therefore, internal strains arise during the emergence of martensitic areas within the austenite. The internal strains can be partially relaxed by the formation of several areas of self-accommodated martensite crystals that minimize the overall deformation induced. These areas called variants and are oriented in different crystallographic directions [Kumar (2008)]. In the absence of external strains, these variants are equally possible and the distribution of self-accommodated groups allows the material to be transformed in order to retain its original shape. Therefore, the formation of the martensite results in elastic (reversible) deformations [Funakubo (1987)]. At constant temperature, the martensite-austenite interfaces are in steady state. A change in temperature in one direction or the other results in moving these interfaces to the benefit of one or the other phase structure. The interfaces can also move under the action of an imposed strain. A specimen can therefore be distorted not by sliding, which is the usual mechanism of plastic deformation, but by the appearance and disappearance of martensite variants [Kumar (2008)]. Therefore, during martensitic transformation atoms in the structure move on very small distances leading to deformation of the crystal lattice. This causes a small variation in volume with shearing of the structure in a specific direction. During the transformation process, the growth of martensite crystals occur in form of platelets to minimize the energy at the interface. The martensitic variants can occur in two different types: twinned martensite (formed by combination of self-accommodated martensite variants) and detwinned martensite (reoriented martensite) where a particular variant dominates [Liu, Xie (2007)]. The characteristic behavior of SMAs is based upon the reversible phase transformation from austenitic phase to martensitic phase and the opposite. By cooling under zero loading, the crystal sructure changes from austenitic to martensitic phase (forward transformation to twinned martensitic phase). This transformation is resulting in the development of a number of martensitic variants, which are arranged in a way that the average change in macroscopic shape is insignificant, causing a twinned martensite [Leclercq, Lexcellent (1996)]. When the material is heated at the martensite phase, the crystal structure is transforming to austenite (reverse transformation from detwinned martensitic to austenitic phase), leading to recovery of shape [Sabu ri, Nenno (1981), Shimizu, Otsuka, Perkins (1975)]. The above process is called Shape Memory Effect (SME) [Schetky (1979), Wayman, Harrison (1989)]. The martensitic transformation is characterized by four temperatures (Figure 2) [Gotthard, Lehnert (2001)]: MS: Temperature below which the martensite appears (martensite start) MF: Temperature below which the entire sample is transformed into martensite (martensite finish) AS: Temperature above which the austenite appears (austenite start) AF: Temperature above which the entire sample is transformed into austenite (austenite finish) The transformation begins at the cooling to the temperature MS. This transformation is completed to the temperature MF. Between these two temperatures, there is coexistence of two phases, which is a characteristic of transformation of the first order. If the cooling is interrupted, the material will not change. To go back to the initial shape, the temperature is increases so that the inverse transformation begins at the temperature AS and finishes to temperature AF, which is higher than MS [Massalski et al. (1990)]. If the trace on a diagram (Figure 1) the volume fraction of material processed as a function of temperature, there is a hysteresis loop, due to the presence of an irreversible energy corresponding to dissipation of mechanical energy transformed into heat [Ortin, Planes, Delaey (2006), Wei,Yang (1988)]. Figure 1 Martensitic transformation temperatures [Gotthard, Lehnert (2001)] The thermoelastic reversibility of the crystal lattice is certain in the case of an ordered alloy [Otsuka, Shimizu (1977)]. The correlation between the manifestation of martensitic transformation and atomic order was shown experimentally in Fe-Pt SMAs [Dunne, Wayman (1973)]. Nevertheless, in disordered alloys, such as Fe-Pd, Mn-Cu and In-TI, can occur thermoelastic transformation too. The atomic order is, therefore, a sufficient condition for manifestation of thermoelastic transformation, but not necessary [Otsuka, Shimizu (1977)]. 1.3 Thermomechanical properties of SMAs Several effects specific to the SMAs appear through the transformations of the crystal lattice as a function of temperature and of the field of stresses applied on the material [Duerig, Melton, Stà ¶ckel (2013)]. 1.3.1 Pseudoelastic Effect In general, by pseudoelasticity we describe both the materials superelastic behavior, as well as rubble-like behavior. Superelastic behavior is called the reversible phase transformation produced by thermo-mechanical loading. Rubber-like effect refers to the reversible martensitic re-orientation. The stress-strain curve during this process resamples to the superelastic behavior, which is similar to rubbers nonlinear elastic behavior [Otsuka, Wayman (1999)]. Therefore, a part from inducing phase transformation thermally, martensitic transformation can also be prompt by applying on the material appropriately high mechanical loading, resulting in creating a martensitic phase from austenite. When the temperature of the SMA goes above AF, shape recovery is resulted while unloading. Such behavior of the material is termed pseudoelastic effect [Kumar (2008)]. Stress-induced martensite, is generally forming from austenite when external stress is present. The process of forming stress-induced martensite can occur through different thermomechanical loading routes [Miyazaki, Otsuka (1986)]. One form of stress-induced martensite is the detwinned martensitic phase formed from austenitic after application of external stress. The material, during the stress-induced martensitic transformation and the reversed process, shows nonlinear elastic behavior described by closed à Ã†â€™-ÃŽÂ µ curves. This nonlinear elastic behavior is called pseudoelastic transformation [Otsuka, K. and K. Shimizu (1981)]. The shape recovery is due to crystallographic reversibility of transformation, like in the shape memory effect. Hence, the two phenomena, transformation pseudoelasticity and shape memory effect are practically the same except the fact that reverse transformation is produced by warming the specimen to temperature above AF. In reality, an alloy that un dergoes thermoelastic martensitic transformation exhibits both transformation pseudoelasticity and shape memory effect [Otsuka, K. and K. Shimizu (1981)]. Nevertheless, for occurring transformation pseudoelasticity, the necessary stress for slip should be greater than that for stress-induced martensite transformation. As an example, we can refer to equiatomic Ti-Ni alloys which are exposed to slip and do not exhibit any transformation pseudoelasticity, regardless of their Ni content. It was shown, however, that Ni-rich Ti-Ni alloys subjected to annealing after cold working, causing refining of their grain size, leads in raising critical slip stress, which results in any transformation pseudoelasticity [Miyazaki et al. (1982), Saburi, Tatsumi, Nenno (1982), Saburi, Yoshida, Nenno (1984)]. The existence of transformation pseudoelasticity is affected by crystalline orientation, composition of the alloy, and direction of applied stresses [Miyazaki, Otsuka (1986)]. 1.3.2 One-Way Shape Memory Effect Another property of SMAs is the one-way shape memory effect. It takes place in four steps: (1) The material is cooled to a temperature lower than MF (the parent austenitic phase) to obtain self-accommodated martensite. (2) Re-orientation of variants of the martensite is obtained via application of stress. (3) The stress is released at constant temperature T F. The material remains to a shape depending on the stress field. (4) The sample is heated at a temperature T > AF making re-appear the austenitic phase and the material gets its original shape, as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 One-way shape memory effect [Miyazaki, Otsuka (1986)] Two conditions are necessary for occurring shape recovery by shape memory effect. Firstly, the transformation should be reversible, and second, slip should not occur during the entire deformation process. Martensitic transformations in ordered alloys are reversible in nature [Miyazaki, Otsuka (1986), Arbuzova, Khandros (1964)], so the entire shape memory effect mainly occurs in this type of alloys. The second condition is necessary because in the case of high stress and every type of deformation mode (stress-induced martensitic transformation in parent phase, twinning in the martensitic phase) slip can be induced, resulting in plastic strain and, not completed recovery of shape. In the one-way shape memory effect, the shape in memory by the SMA is the one of the parent phase. 1.3.3 Two-Way Shape Memory Effect The two-way shape memory effect is the reversible passage of a shape at a high temperature to another shape at low temperature under stress. The two-way shape memory effect should precede the SMA training [Nagasawa, et al. (1974]. Training of SMAs consists of temperature cycling at constant stress or stress cycling at constant temperature. During training, microstructural defects (i.e. dislocations) lead to internal stresses and therefore promote oriented martensite. A SMA subjected to training can then move from austenitic phase to oriented martensite under zero load by simple change of temperature [Schroeder, Wayman (1977)]. It has then a shape in memory for each of the two phases. Various methods that cause two-way shape memory effect have been suggested, such as, large deformation in stress-induced martensite transformation at temperatures > MS [Delaey et al. (1974)], shape memory effect training [Schroeder, Wayman (1977)], stress-induced martensite training [Schroeder, Wayman (1977)], training involving both of shape memory effect as well as stress-induced martensite [Perkins, Sponholz (1984)] remaining in martensite state while heating at a temperature > AF [Takezawa, Shindo, Sato (1976)], as well as using precipitates [Tadaki, Otsuka, Shimizu (1988)]. 1.4 Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) Several experimental studies have shown the development of nonlinear plastic (irreversible) strain when phase transformations occur [Greenwood, Johnson (1965), Abrassart (1972), Magee (1966), Desalos (1981), Olson, Cohen (1986), Denis et al. (1982)]. This mechanism of deformation is termed Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP), resulting from internal stress rising from the change in volume related to the transformation, as well as from the associated change in shape [Marketz, Fischer (1994)]. TRIP differs from classical plasticity. Although plasticity is caused from the applied stress or variation in temperature, TRIP is triggered by phase variations, and occurs even at low and constant stress levels [Gautier et al. (1989), Leblond et al. (1989), Gautier (1998), Tanaka, Sato (1985), Fischer et al. (2000, 1996)]. TRIP takes place because of two separate mechanisms. The first, refers to a process of accommodation of micro-plasticity related to volume change [Greenwood, Johnson (196 5)]. The other, refers to an orientation caused by shear internal stresses, favoring the direction of preferred orientation for the formation of martensite when and external stress is present, which involves change in shape [Magee (1966)]. TRIP is caused by the difference in compactness of the lattice structure between the austenite (parent) and the martensite (product) phase [Greenwood, Johnson (1965)]. During martensitic transformation, this difference has produces a change in volume as well as internal stresses causing plasticity in the phase with less yield stress, which is weaker   [Paiva, Savi, Pacheco (2005)]. REFERENCES Abrassart, F., Influence des Transformations Martensitiques sur les Proprià ©tà ©s Mà ©caniques des Alliages du Systà ¨me Fe-Ni-Cr-C, Thà ¨se dÉtat, Università © de Nancy I (Trance), 1972. Arbuzova, I. and L. Khandros, Abnormal elongation and reduced resistance to plastic deformation due to martensitic transformation in the alloy CU-AL-NI. Phys. Metals Metallogr., 17(3), pp. 68-74, 1964. Delaey, L., et al., Thermoelasticity, pseudoelasticity and the memory effects associated with martensitic transformations. Journal of Materials Science, 9(9), pp. 1521-1535, 1974. Denis, S., Simon, A. and Beck, G., Estimation of the Effect of Stress/Phase Transformation Interaction when Calculating Internal Stress during Martensitic Quenching of Steel, Trans. Iron Steel Inst. Jap., Vol. 22, pp. 505, 1982. Desalos, Y., Comportement dilatomà ©trique et mà ©canique de lAustà ©nite Mà ©tastabledun Acier A 533, IRSID Report n. 95.34.94.01 MET 44, 1981. Duerig, T., K. Melton, D. Stockel, C. Wayman (Eds.), Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann, London, 1990. Duerig, T.W., K. Melton, and D. Stà ¶ckel, Engineering aspects of shape memory alloys,   Butterworth-Heinemann, 2013. Dunne, D. and C. Wayman, The effect of austenite ordering on the martensite transformation in Fe-Pt alloys near the composition Fe3Pt: I. Morphology and transformation characteristics. Metallurgical Transactions, 4(1), pp. 137-145, 1973. Fischer, F.D., Reisner, G., Werner, E., Tanaka, K., Cailletaud, G. and Antretter, T., A New View on Transformation Induced Plasticity, International Journal of Plasticity, vol. 16, pp. 723-748, 2000. Fischer, F.D., Sun, Q.P. and Tanaka, K., Transformation induced plasticity (TRIP), Applied Mechanics Review, Vol. 49, pp. 317-364, 1996. Funakubo, H. (Ed.), Shape Memory Alloys, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1987. Funakubo, H., Shape Memory Alloys, Gordon and Breach Sci. Publ, New York, p. 275, 1987. Gautier, E., Dà ©formation de transformation et plasticità © de transformation, École dà ©tà © MH2M, Mà ©thodes dHomogà ©nà ©isation en Mà ©canique des Matà ©riaux, La Londe Les Maures (Var, France), 1998. Gautier, E., Zhang, X.M. and Simon, A., Role of Internal Stress State on Transformation Induced Plasticity and Transformation Mechanisms during the Progress of Stress Induced Phase Transformation, International Conference on Residual Stresses- ICRS2, (Ed: G. Beck, S. Denis and A. Simon), Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp. 777-783, 1989. Gilbertson, R. G. , Muscle Wires Project Book, Mondotronics, p. 2-1/2-8, 1994. Gotthard R. and T. Lehnert, Alliages à   mà ©moire de forme, Traità © des matà ©riaux n °19: Matà ©riaux à ©mergents, p. 81-105, 2001. Greenwood, G.W. Johnson, R.H., The Deformation of Metals under Small Stresses during Phase Transformation, Proceedings of the Royal Society A 283, pp. 403-422, 1965. Greenwood, G.W. and Johnson, R.H., The Deformation of Metals under Small Stresses during Phase Transformation, Proceedings of the Royal Society A 283, pp. 403-422, 1965. Guà ©nin, G., Alliages à   mà ©moire de forme, Techniques de lIngà ©nieur, vol. 10, p. 1-11, 1986. Kumar P., Introduction to Shape Memory Alloys, Shape Memory Alloys, 2008 Kumar, P. and D. Lagoudas, Shape Memory Alloys Modeling and Engineering Applications. 2008, Springer Science, New York, NY. Kurdjumov, G. V., L. G. Khandros, First reports of the thermoelastic behaviour of the martensitic phase of Au-Cd alloys, Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 66 (1949) 211-213. Lagoudas, D. C., P. B. Entchev, P. Popov, et al., Shape memory alloys, Part II: Modeling of polycrystals, Mechanics of Materials, vol. 38, p. 430-462, 2006. Leblond, J., Devaux, J. and Devaux, J.C., Mathematical Modeling of Transformation Plasticity in Steels I: Case of Ideal-plastic Phases, International Journal of Plasticity, Vol. 5, pp. 551-572, 1989. Leblond, J., Mathematical Modeling of Transformation Plasticity in Steels II: Coupling with Strain Hardening Phenomena, International Journal of Plasticity, Vol. 5, pp. 573-591, 1989. Leclercq S., and C. Lexcellent, A general macroscopic description of the thermomechanical behavior of shape memory alloys, Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of solids, 44, 953-980, 1996. Liu Y., and Z. Xie, Detwinning in shape memory alloy, In: Progress in Smart Materials and Structures, Ed. Peter L. Reece, pp. 29-65, 2007. Magee, C.L., Transformation Kinetics, Microplasticity and Aging of Martensite in Fe-31 Ni, Ph.D. thesis, Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburg, PA, 1966. Marketz, F.   and   Fischer,   F.D.,   A   Micromechanical   Study   on   the   Coupling   Effect   Between   Microplastic Deformation and Martensitic Transformation, Computational Materials Science, Vol. 3, pp. 307-325, 1994. Massalski, T.B., et al., Binary alloy phase diagrams. vol. 3. ASM International, pp. 1485, 1990. Miyazaki S, Ohmi Y, Otsuka K, Suzuki Y. Characteristics of deformation and transformation pseudoelasticity in Ti-Ni alloys. Le Journal de Physique Colloques, 43, 1982. Miyazaki, S. and K. Otsuka, Deformation and transition behavior associated with theR-phase in Ti-Ni alloys. Metallurgical Transactions A, 17(1), pp. 53-63, 1986. Nagasawa, A., et al., Reversible shape memory effect. Scripta Metallurgica, 8(9), pp. 1055-1060, 1974. Olson, G.B. and Cohen, M., Mechanical Properties and Phase Transformation in Engineering Materials, TMS-AIME, Warrendale, Pa (Ed: S. D. Antolovich, R. O. Ritchie and W. W. Gerberich), pp.367, 1986. Ortin, J., A. Planes and L. Delaey , Hysteresis in Shape-Memory Materials in The Science of Hysteresis, (2006), pp. 467-553. Otsuka and K, Shimizu, K., Ser. Metall. 1, pp. 757-60, 1977. Otsuka, K. and K. Shimizu, Pseudoelasticity, In: Metals Forum, 1981. Otsuka, K., C. M.Wayman (Eds.), Shape Memory Materials, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999. Paiva, A., M.A. Savi, P.M. Pacheco, Modeling transformation induced plasticity in shape memory alloys, Proceedings of COBEM, 18th International Congress of Mechanical Engineering, Nov. 6-11, 2005, Ouro Preto, MG, 2005. Patoor, E., D. C. Lagoudas, P. B. Entchev, et al., Shape memory alloys, Part I: General properties and modeling of single crystals, Mechanics of Materials, vol. 38, p. 391-429, 2006. Perkins, J. and R. Sponholz, Stress-induced martensitic transformation cycling and two-way shape memory training in Cu-Zn-Al alloys. Metallurgical transactions A, 15(2), pp. 313-321, 1984. Perkins, J., Shape Memory Effects in Alloys, Plenum Press, New York, 1975. Rosa M., Phase Transformations in Steels, Volume 1: Fundamentals and Diffusion-Controlled Transformations, International Journal of Environmental Studies, vol. 70(2), pp. 337-338, 2013. Saburi, T. and S. Nenno, The shape memory effect and related phenomena. Solid to Solid Phase Transformations, pp. 1455-1479, 1981. Saburi, T., M. Yoshida, and S. Nenno, Deformation behavior of shape memory TiNi alloy crystals. Scripta metallurgica, 18(4), pp. 363-366, 1984. Saburi, T., T. Tatsumi, and S. Nenno, Effects of heat treatment on mechanical behavior of Ti-Ni alloys. Le Journal de Physique Colloques, 43(C4), pp. C4-261-C4-266, 1982. Schetky, L., Shape-memory alloys, Scientific American 241 (74-82), 1979. Schroeder, T. and C. Wayman, The two-way shape memory effect and other training phenomena in Cu Zn single crystals. Scripta Metallurgica, 11(3), pp. 225-230, 1977. Shimizu, K., K. Otsuka, and J. Perkins, Shape Memory Effects in Alloys. Perkins, J., Ed.(New York: Plenum), pp. 60-87, 1975. Tadaki, T., K. Otsuka, and K. Shimizu, Shape memory alloys. Annual Review of Materials Science, 18(1), pp. 25-45, 1988. Takezawa, K., T. Shindo, and S.I. Sato, Shape memory effect in 1-CuZnAl alloys. Scripta Metallurgica, 10(1), pp. 13-18, 1976. Tanaka, K. and Sato, Y., A Mechanical View of Transformation-Induced Plasticity, Ingenieur Archiv 55, pp. 147-155, 1985. Wayman, M., J. Harrison, The origins of the shape memory effect, Journal of Minerals, Metals, and Materials 41 (99) pp. 26-28, 1989. Wei, Z., D. Yang, On the hysteresis loops and characteristic temperatures of thermoelastic martensitic transformations, Scripta Metallurgica, Volume 22, Issue 8, 1988, pp. 1245-1249.

Parents of Pre-term Infants Essay -- social workers, parental stress,

Article Review One The first article, Parents of Pre-term Infants Two Months after Discharge from the Hospital: Are They Still at (Parental) Risk? (Olshtain-Mann, O. & Auslander, G. K , 2008), describes a study in Israel that was designed to gain further understanding of † the emotional state and functioning of parents of pre-term infants, after an initial period of adjustment following the infants’ discharge from a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU)†. Specifically, this study compared the stress levels of parents and self-perceptions of competence as parents among mothers and fathers, two months after discharge of their babies from the hospital. The study compared parents of pre-term babies with parents of full-term babies. A target group of 80 pairs of parents of pre-term babies and a non-matched comparison group of 80 pairs of parents of full-term babies were interviewed for the study. Respondents were selected as follows: All couples (both mothers and fathers) in both groups were Hebrew speaking. The target group had pre-term infants who were hospitalized in the NICU of any of three hospitals in Jerusalem during 2001-2002. These premature babies weighed less than 3.85 pounds and were born in the 36th week or earlier. All were treated in the NICU for one week or more. According to the article, exclusions included parents of children who were not expected to survive or those who had congenital abnormalities. Parents of the full-term babies had infants who were born in the same time period, and in the same hospitals, as the target group. All babies in both groups were singletons. The interviews were conducted by social workers and followed a specific protocol. A further questionnaire was completed by both mothers and fa... ...e employed to develop programs that will offer support to the new parents of higher risk children. Works Cited Olshtain-Mann, O. & Auslander, G. K. (2008). Parents of pre-term infants two months after discharge from the hospital: Are they still at (parental) risk? Health & Social Work, 33(4), 299-308. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/210554738?accountid=8289 Pierrehumbert, B., Nicole, A., Muller-Nix, C., Forcada-Guex, M., Ansermet, F. Parental post- traumatic reactions after premature birth: implications for sleeping and eating problems in the infant. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2003;88:5 F400-F404 doi:10.1136/fn.88.5.F400 Dacey, J., Travers, J. & Fiore, L. (2009) Human Development Across the Lifespan. (7th ed). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Cogburn, N., Cogburn, N. personal communications, April 5, 2014.

Importance of a Small Class Size Essay

Wenyan Dong Writing 6 First draft Causes and Effects of Reducing Class Size Improving the quality of education becomes common trend today. People have made many ways to support education. Most of schools reduce the size of class that make more chances for students and teachers to communicate face to face. The reducing of class result from some courses and also makes some effects to teachers and students. The first significant cause is the attention from teachers is not equal to different grade students. Small class had origin in early years. Follow the increasing of population, small size class has become bigger. Recent research reveals that there were 50†60 students in one class, but Just one or two teachers advise class. It means that one teacher Just pay a little patient for each student in presentation, speech, question, and homework. Thus, many teachers pay more attention on students who have prefect grade and ignore students who have a low grade. It is not equal to low grade students because they pay same tuition and fee to school also study hard.. In addition, teachers who teach in a big class have to take a lot of work after class and exhaust them. They have to correct students’ homework for a long time. Also students ask many question after class if they do not understand, however, it exhaust teachers’ energy and patient and they don’t have enough time and disable to answer each question to each students. As a result, student could not get help immediately. Meanwhile, environment in class is important. Teachers could not control teaching environment in big class, because it is difficult to make students keep quiet and concentrate on blackboard whole time. Also students do not have enough personal environments, because it is crowd, usually two students have to share one big desk on big class, hence, there are no room for other hings but book. Due to those causes, it would decrease the quality of education, at the same time, lost a lot of labor cost, also waste time and money of students and parents. Thus, school reducing the size of class. It could make more time for teacher work for each student; furthermore, teacher can communicate with student face to face. In addition, it could make study environment better for students. Consequently, teachers who teach in small class do not need to do many assignments after class, even if they also need to make a correction about students’ homework, but they may have more time to be a tutor and help students who do not nderstand in the class. Meanwhile teacher could focus on the question for each student that would be equal for every student. Moreover, on being assigned to smaller classes, teacher reported that class atmosphere is better, that students could receive more individualized attention and that the teachers have more flexibility to use instructional approaches and assignments. To sum up, reducing the class size is inescapably. It leads to higher achievement of students and make more time improve the quality of education, but also make students and teachers keep touch closely. Therefore, reducing class size is good way for students and teachers.

Economic Simulation Reflection United Kingdom Economics Essay Essays

Economic Simulation Reflection United Kingdom Economics Essay Essays Economic Simulation Reflection United Kingdom Economics Essay Essay Economic Simulation Reflection United Kingdom Economics Essay Essay The impact of rising prices was illustrated in the game in a assortment of ways. First, when our state ( Great Britain ) experienced high rising prices in the early phases of the simulation due to high authorities disbursement degrees, we noticed that the exchange rate to change over British lbs into other currency was really low and that when we did exchange, we received really small in return of the other currency. This of class made trade highly expensive and as a consequence hard to construct substructure and derive indispensable resources such as nutrient that we were non able to bring forth. Second, lifting rising prices meant lifting monetary values and made other states avoid trade trades due to the high cost of our resources. The high monetary values drove other states to happen better trades elsewhere as they were non able to obtain good value as the small resources from our state would non hold been deserving their money. Consequently our state s grosss suffered as a consequence. Not merely had our grosss from trade trades suffered, but existent GDP fell in our state as a consequence of the uncontrolled rising prices exceling the GDP growing rate due to both, no disbursement ( as we had small money from no trade ) and few policy alterations to command the diminution of the economic system. Finally, due to rising prices take downing the criterion of life in a state, our workers went on work stoppage and non merely were we non able to, at times, even produce resources doing a loss in grosss and the inability to better substructure without obtaining resources elsewhere ( which was expensive ) . The impact of rising prices was demonstrated to us throughout the class legion times in pecuniary policy, and the economic construct that we experienced the most in the simulation was the construct of magnitude. The class construct of magnitude was seen at times as rising prices outweighed involvement, which led to less buying power with the British lb ( as experienced during the simulation ) and led to few resources being obtained by our state. Magnitude causes consumers to pass money now instead than subsequently as they realize that merchandises will merely be more subsequently down the route as the buying power of their money lessenings. This of class causes farther stimulation of the economic system ( at a clip when it would be un-beneficial and the chilling of an economic system is needed ) and further drives up cost of merchandises ( or resources ) and therefore increases rising prices even more to unmanageable degrees. The impact of rising prices and magnitude was experienced during the 1920 s in Germany where hyperinflation was so rapid, workers would be paid twice a twenty-four hours and given a half-hour deferral so that they could hotfoot out and purchase basically anything before the value of their money would drop and they were non able to feed their households[ I ]. Inflation in Germany even got to the point where the monetary value of the dollar ( in 1923 ) had risen to 381,700,000,000 % while the cost of life, as a comparing, had risen good beyond 560,000,000,000 % . Measured by how many Markss it took to purchase a dollar, monetary values were 222 times higher. The hyperinflation eliminated all debts that existed prior to 1921. For illustration, the value of German mortgages in 1913 measured in U.S. dollars was about $ 10 billion ; in late 1923 these mortgages were deserving merely one U.S. penny. These statistics illustrate non merely the quickly diminishing buying power of the German grade, but besides the badness of what is now considered to be one of the work rising prices crises of all clip. Importance of substructure During the simulation, the importance of substructure became progressively evident as during the initial old ages, monetary values of goods in our state began to lift and other states avoided trade trades. This of class cost us important gross, which made it progressively hard to raise capital and obtain necessities ( nutrient ) . Prior to bettering upon, and constructing our ain substructure nevertheless, we noticed that monetary values of resources in other states were steadily diminishing as a consequence of their substructure betterments, which at the same time caused the frequence of trade between these states and their Alliess to increase and doing them important net incomes. Once we began to better on our ain substructure following this observation nevertheless, which included roads, communicating, mills, and office towers ( for the corporate triumph status ) , we non merely found that monetary values of our goods fell, but besides, due to the fact that substructure is a signifier of authorities disbursement ; GDP began to lift. Along with authorities disbursement through the addition in substructure, the increased trade from our now lowered monetary values caused exports to other states to lift ( an injection to the round flow ) and allowed us to bring forth more net income at that clip. As a consequence of the initial alteration to lower monetary values of our resources, we besides noticed that due to our merchandises holding more demand as a consequence of lowered monetary values, our escapes ( chiefly imports ) were outweighed by our injections ( the addition in exports ) , which made that twelvemonth really profitable. This rise in GDP combined with the, at that clip, controlled rising prices, led to Great Britain s currency being deserving more in footings of exchange rate on the planetary market, and other states began to near us more often for resources. The importance of substructure is a fluctuation of the construct of economies of graduated table from the economic sciences class. Economies of graduated table provinces that the larger the production graduated table ( or in footings of the simulation ; the more mills and substructure ) , the cheaper the cost per unit as you are able to distribute to fixed costs of doing a merchandise ( resource ) over more units of production ensuing in less fixed costs per unit and a cheaper merchandise or in this instance, resource. In existent life the importance of substructure and the ensuing cost decreases are seen in an illustration from the United Kingdom ( besides the same state from our simulation ) . In the UK, the authorities had begun to increase the technology of air current turbines as a beginning of renewable energy in an attempt to cut the cost of electricity and go more efficient[ two ]. In the instance of renewable energy, economic systems of graduated table are a clear manner to cut down costs per unit and salvage money. The more energy you can acquire out of a individual device, the lower the cost per megawatt. If you build a 10MW turbine, instead than two 5MW 1s, you get important nest eggs in all of those and that brings your monetary value per megawatt down significantly. This of class was besides illustrated in our simulation through the pick of either constructing little or big production mills, which would change the cost of the resource produced, but changing in precisely the sum of nest eggs and the resources used to build in order to be the most efficient. Impact of revenue enhancements and disbursement The impact of revenue enhancements and disbursement were experient two different ways during the G7 economic simulation. First, as we raised revenue enhancements to counter the high rising prices experienced early on in the simulation, we found that resources became progressively expensive to buy and therefore as a consequence, the limited money that we had at that clip was non plenty to prolong us with indispensable resources and reinforced substructure at the same clip. This caused early stagnancy in the growing of our economic system and the growing of our corporation as the high cost of our ain resources prevented important GDP growing and enlargement. Second, as a consequence of high revenue enhancements, small disbursement from other states for our merchandises took topographic point for our resources and we experienced small gross from exports and small to no GDP growing early in the simulation as a consequence. The limited disbursement from other states for our merchandises had an consequence on our ain disbursement, as there was small money generated, and therefore small available for our ain state to pass. This disbursement quandary nevertheless was all a consequence of our initial high revenue enhancement rate as a method of inflationary restraint and the effort to happen a balance between commanding rising prices and take downing monetary values. During the initial old ages of the simulation we had besides noticed that other states who had low revenue enhancement rates, but besides lower rising prices, were merchandising among each other more often as the revenue enhancements on resources, and therefore overall cost was lower. This of class led them to do more gross and spread out their economic systems along with the corporation facet. Following this observation, our primary end was to command rising prices and instantly lower revenue enhancements to increase trade entreaty. The construct of revenue enhancements and disbursement was touched upon in the macroeconomics part of the class and specifically in financial policy. The construct of raising and take downing revenue enhancements by the authorities along with authorities disbursement are considered agencies of economic stimulation as they are considered both escapes ( revenue enhancements ) and injections ( authorities disbursement ) . We used this construct from the financial policy unit in our economic simulation in an attempt to advance economic stimulation with a revenue enhancement cut ( without making a deficit of grosss ) and besides attempted to increase authorities disbursement ( in moderateness to guarantee we still had adequate money left to buy indispensable resources ) . The financial policy unit outlined precisely what authoritiess would make in both bull and bear markets to either stimulate, or forestall farther growing and as we experienced both good and bad times during the simulation. We used the construct of revenue enhancements and disbursement to both stimulate and stagnate growing in our economic system when it was necessary. A existent life illustration of the execution of revenue enhancements and its consequence on disbursement can be seen in Australia as the authorities imposed a new revenue enhancement on crude oil doing the oil giants, unable to absorb all costs, to turn around and increase monetary values on consumers[ three ] In order to remain competitory, concerns seek to go through cost additions onto their clients. ( Microeconomics construct ) Despite gas being a necessity and the industry an oligopoly causation demand for the resource to stay comparatively changeless, more consumers will more than likely effort to cut down gas ingestion in order to diminish their disbursement following the revenue enhancement addition and the new, higher cost of the trade good. Why do we merchandise? What makes it possible? Necessary? As the simulation consisted of 7 states all holding entree to assorted sums of assorted resources, the ability for one state to prolong both their economic system and construct their corporation was non possible with merely the production of their ain resources. Therefore, as some states produced what others could nt, the demand for trade became progressively evident. Not merely, during the simulation, did all states commence in trade with at least one or more other states in order to obtain both indispensable, and excess resources for substructure and development of their corporation, but it became rather apparent that trade was the lone means for some states to go on to feed their population and basically run into their one-year demands. This became evident first manus to our state ( Great Britain ) as we were non able to bring forth nutrient and therefore had to trust on trade with other states every twelvemonth to get necessities in order to avoid farther loss of GDP as a end point punishment. Trade during the simulation was comparatively simple nevertheless, provided that adequate capital was raised to pay for the basal monetary value of the resource and the revenue enhancements set by each single state. No trade barriers, extra fees or duties, nor external issues were experienced during the simulation and therefore trade was both possible and highly good once trades and orders between states were established. As expected nevertheless, the states with the lowest monetary value of resources and lowest revenue enhancements ( such as the EU for several old ages ) were favorites by others for trade trades. This of class made them important gross and gave them first pick in measure of the resources that they required and subsequently obtained from such trade spouses. Merely in the ulterior phases of the simulation did certain states avoid trade trades with each other in order to cut off resources to certain states and as a consequence put strain on their ability to run into demands in an attempt to, basically seek and lower their GDP for a personal triumph status. This effort to cut off supply to other states illustrates some points from the class construct of Porter s 5 forces such as supply power, rivalry/ competition, and handiness of replacements. The construct of free trade from the economic sciences class was besides another chief factor in the trade trades between states in the simulation. Although non all states specifically specialized in the production of one peculiar resource, good dealingss between states allowed for the free trade construct to get down and most states found at least one other trade spouse who was able to provide them with what they required. Without the construct of free trade and specialisation nevertheless, both efficiency and wealth maximization would diminish, but the hazard of mutuality for states would besides fall, exemplifying both the pros and cons of international trade. An illustration of the importance, ability, and benefits of trade can be seen with the export of Canadian canola to the Chinese market[ four ]. It has been confirmed that China will widen its steps to let Canadian canola exporters to subscribe contracts with Chinese importers for extra canola to be shipped and traded. This is good intelligence for China, and both Canadian husbandmans and the Canadian authorities as Canola is one of Canada s most valuable exports to China, worth about $ 1.3 billion. This illustration illustrates both the demand for trade to have merchandises non able to be grown in China for illustration and the important grosss that would be lost had trade barriers and extra revenue enhancements been imposed on the Canadian goods. Specialization Specialization of resources during the simulation became indispensable in our states ability to run into the one-year demands of nutrient and oil. As we were non able to bring forth nutrient, we relied on our constitution of a trade trade with the EU, as they ever produced an copiousness of nutrient and therefore as a consequence provided us with a low monetary value and an one-year supply of what we required. Not merely had the EU experienced the benefits of specialisation from changeless trade and gross from our state, but our ain state besides realized the benefits of specialisation and produced more oil than we needed on an one-year footing in order to provide Japan as they ever proceeded to purchase from us. Our specialisation in oil production meant changeless gross from Japan, and gave us close ties with them for resources that they produced, which we needed. The construct of specialisation and free trade was covered in the international trade unit of the class and outlined the benefits of a state non holding to bring forth all the resources that they required doing states to specialise and merchandise with each other and as a consequence, maximising universe wealth. The lone issue with specialisation is interdependence as states begin to trust on merely one provider of a certain resource ( as they no longer need to bring forth it ) , which presents the possible hazard of supply coming to a sudden arrest and the importing state enduring economically. This class construct was besides experienced in the simulation as in the last 2 old ages, the EU began to cut Japan s supply of resources and they found it progressively hard to happen what they required as no other trade trades for that peculiar resource were established. In existent life the construct of resource specialisation can be seen with Iran being a universe leader in the export of oil ( ranked as the 2nd largest exporting member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries )[ V ]. The benefits of specialisation can besides be illustrated with the important grosss produced as a consequence of big markets. For illustration, Iran s primary export markets included Japan, China, South Africa, Brazil, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Spain, India and the Netherlands, while oil grosss as a consequence of such extended trade accounted for 80 per centum of Iran s foreign currency grosss and 60 per centum of Iran s overall budget. This illustrates non merely the sum of wealth that a state may see as a consequence of specialising in the production of a certain resource, but besides the sum of other states that rely on states specialising in order to obtain resources for their ain usage and sale in their economic systems.

Nectar in a Sieve - Puli essays

Nectar in a Sieve - Puli essays Puli is first introduced to the readers in chapter 25 as a quick-witted and incisive ragamuffin whom for which his street know how is dually noted. The author states, He was an artful child in many ways, and more than a match for us (Markandaya 176). With a quick tongue and an acute mind he makes his day in day out routines seem facile, despite his distinct physical impediments. Fingers or no fingers, life is worth living for this child who takes advantage of every opportunity for self-gain and internal completeness. This urchin is brought into this novel with his sense of direction needing to be imparted upon a duo of country-bumpkins who obviously have no grasp of where there intended destination is. Puli assists in this operation, but not for free, for Puli is no ignoramus. Puli is incorporated into the final chapters of Nectar in a Sieve by residing with Ruku and Nathan. In order to provide a more blissful future for the couple Puli once again assists by providing employment for Ruku and Nathan. A career in stone breaking, this time a gift for free. A free donation, already showing the growing closeness between the couple and Puli. A new Puli is being formulated. A more compassionate and benevolent guru emerging from the once egotistical and self-indulgent orphan. Puli is also involved as an accountant, onlooker, and confidant, and child for the couple. Throughout these experiences Puli is entrusted with more of the couples confidence, leading him to be a more loyal and moral person. This change becomes quite evident in the authors selection of words used to illustrate Pulis character. The author states, In the short time he has spent with us we have become to be curiously dependent on the boy, respecting his independent spirit as much as hi s considerable knowledge of the city and its many kinds of people (Markandaya 178). This quote expresses how the couple, despite thei...

Understanding strategic management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Understanding strategic management - Essay Example h of the global airlines and predicts $560 billion in its revenue with the net profits of about $8.9 billion, the European air sector is expected to have loss of $1.3 billion (IATA, 2010). In particular, the number of the UK airports’ passengers has fallen by 7.3% - the biggest fall in the overall history of records (Milmo, 2010). In spite of the all-European negative trend, the Ryanair’s business has been stable and strong – today the company reports about the growth in profits in â‚ ¬ 318.8 million over 2010 (RAa, 2010). As it is claimed in the Ryanair Annual Report 2010: â€Å"All the key indicators including traffic growth, market share, unit costs, profits, new route and base development, confirm that Ryanair continues to successfully roll out our unique low fares formula across Europe for the benefit of our passengers, our people and our shareholders† (RAa, 2010, p.6). However, one cannot but admit that the competitive environment of the global airline industry is changing dramatically, entailing challenges for even successful businesses. In order to respond appropriately to these emerging challenges, companies should constantly analyse, evaluate and formulate anew their strategies. The history of Ryanair began in 1985, when the company launched the first short daily route from Waterford in the Ireland to London Gatwick, pioneering the low-fares flight’s operating model in Europe. Thanks to a number of reasonable strategic decisions and changes provided by the company’s executives, the Ryanair have managed to strengthen market position enormously. Today Ryanair Limited is the largest and top-ranked low cost (or no-frills) airline company at the European passenger airline market. It serves low-fares, point-to-point routes from the so called â€Å"Ryanair’s bases of operations† consisting of about 40 airports in Ireland, the UK, Continental Europe and Morocco (RAa, p. 53). Table in Appendix A exhibits statistics of the Ryanair operational performance

Essey 6 k Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Essey 6 k - Essay Example Besides, Lao anticipates benefiting from improved infrastructure, job opportunities and growth of local industries from the investments. Some of the foreign direct investments in Lao comprise of construction of showrooms in the major cities. Thus far, the American firm RMA is in the process of venturing in Lao. The move shall facilitate distribution of the major brands like John Deere tractors, Land Rover and other automobile equipment. Besides, Coca-Cola Company construction of a bottling plant in the country is a notable investment. Additional foreign direct investments include the banking industry, for example, the Malayan Banking Bhd, industries expansion like Essilor that makes eyeglass lenses. In addition, the country attracts real estate investors like the Shanghai Wanfengs and investments in infrastructure like a railway line construction. Risks of foreign direct investment in Lao include the unstable commercial laws that expose foreign investors to vulnerabilities like loss of properties. In addition, the government’s biassed in conflict resolution makes the environment volatile. Finally, prevalence of corruption makes the business condition unbearable for

Birth Control in the USA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Birth Control in the USA - Essay Example A recent study has proved that 42% of teenage girls living in urban society involved in sex before they reach 15 and 26% of them having sex at the age of 14 (Guttmacher Institute, 2012). The statics reveals that it would be beneficial if the young girls get the access to protective contraceptives and condoms. Elders believe that young school going students must not found involved in sex and therefore, birth control pills are not something for them (Eichner 129). According to them, if the teenage girls get the easy access to condoms or contraceptives, there is a likelihood that the trend might get reach to the peak as it will surely encourage them to have sex whether safe or not. No matter what people think, the sad part is that teenagers are not going to stop the sex activities and therefore, it would be ideal to accept the reality and allow them to have protective sex in order to counter the harsh consequence in term of pregnancy. Many hospitals and doctors have the rule of parent’s permissible note from the teenage group girls so that they can prescribe the pills. However, there are some clinics that offer birth control pills or condom with family insurance without the note to young teenage girls of age 15 and above without seeing their parents. Family insurance helps when the girl using condom or pill accidentally gets pregnant. So, the discussion is very clear that if a teenage girl wants to involve in sexual activities, she has complete right to have the access to the preventive material so that she can avoid unwanted pregnancy. It is also good for the society where a new addition is not needed for the time being from a young girl or the school going teenage girl faces a dropout.  

Post war Greece Essay Example for Free

Post war Greece Essay Benito Mussolini had expansionists policies in his Fascist regime in Italy. By the mid of 1940, Mussolini had started admiring Adolf Hitlers conquests and wanted to prove his counterpart, Hitler who was an Axis partner, that he too could lead Italy to success in war. Italy took control over Albania in 1939. Italians invaded Greece after the Greek dictator whose name was I. Metaxas refused to honor Italian ultimatum demanding the occupation of Greek territory. The Greek counter attacked and forced the Italians out and even took control of Albania formerly under Italy. In April 1941, Germany started attacking Greece and the Italian army also resumed their attack to Greece. As a result, the Greece army started retreating back from Albania to avoid a possible cut off by the rapidly advancing Germany troops. On April 20th, the Greek army based at Epirus surrendered to their enemies,the Germans and on the 23rd the same month, the same was repeated now to include the Italians and thus bringing the war between Greece and Italy to an end. The Greek victory over the Italian offensive on October 1940 was the first victory of the second world war and this boosted the morale in the occupied Europe Italian soldiers came across the Greek border in the 28th day of October 1940 but Greek defenders who were more determined drove these invaders back in to Albania (McNail, 167). As the death of Metaxas came in January 1941, he had already undergone a transformation from unpopular dictator who was not admirable by the people in to a national leader liked by the people, by his defiance of Mussolini and to the people his death was a great loss. Hitler was forced to reluctantly divert the troops from Germany to go and rescue Mussolini from being defeated and as a result ended up attacking Greece through Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. In response, the Greek sought for assistance from the British, and assistance was given readily although Greeks kept insisting stubbornly to defend Macedonia and Thrace from attacks by the Germany invaders while the Greeces only hope was to strategically withdraw to a defensive line on a river south of Thessaloniki. Towards the end of May, the German troops had taken control over much of the land in Greece. Both the king and the government escaped to Crete and stayed here until the battle of Crete finally came to an end. From here, they transferred to Egypt where they established a government in exile while an establishment of a Nazi held puppet regime took place in Athens, Greece. Members of this regime were either conservatives or belonging to the nationalists but with fascist leanings. The three people who collaborated with the enemy were T. Georgis, K. Logothetopoulos and R. Ioannis. T. Georgis was the general who signed the armistice earlier with Wehrmacht, while Logothetopoulos had become naughty for having aimed to recruit juvenile volunteers to help in restrengthening the Germany army. On the other hand, R. Ioannis had a very notable achievement in that he saw to the creation of the security battalions for the collaborationists to protect those who supported the enemies. Greece greatly suffered very terrible privations during the second world war when the Germans took control of most of the Greeces agricultural production and also prevented the fishing fleets of Greece from operating. Following the Axis force occupation on the Greek land, a great famine struck in the year 1941 and 1942 because of the blockade by the British naval and also due to the fact that Germany soldiers had seized the crops. Due to hunger and other associated effects of famine, several thousands of Greeks died. AS a result, several resistance movements came up in the hilly and mountain regions and soon the Germans and those who supported them remained in control of only the major highways and the connected towns. The largest of the up coming group was the National Popular Liberation Army (the ELAS) which was under the control of the communists and a civil war soon broke out between the National popular liberation army and the non- communists uprising groups such as the national republican Greek league (the EDES) in the areas which had been liberated from the German troops. The royalist government set up in exile in Cairo was only intermittently keeping in touch with the resistant movement and this government in Cairo failed to appreciate how the monarchy set up in Greece had lost its popularity. The resistance of the Greeks people against invasion by the Italians had a great influence to the course the second world war took. Adolf Hitler would say that if Italy had not attacked Greece and needed Germany assistance, the world war would have taken a quite different course. What would be anticipated was the cold war in Russia by weeks, Moscow and Reningrad conquered and Stalingrad would not have existed. The need to occupy Greece, suppress partisans and defend Greece from Allied actions led Germany and Italy to drop much of their differences during the second world war. The Greek resistance ultimately necessitated collaboration between Germany and Italy. Due to political considerations, British forces were send to Greece from Middle East, and this was considered to be a major strategic mistake because that was a critical stage to divert military forces from Middle East. The British forces could not stop Germany invasion in Greece. Political disorder and the 1946-49 war in Greece In October 1944, German forces withdrew from Greece and the Greece government in exile came back to Athens. Then the ELAS guerrilla soldiers took control over most of the land in Greece with its leaders having an ultimate aim to control the whole country despite Stallins agreement that Greece would remain within the region of influence by the British after the war. Demonstrators from the Communist Athens ended in violence in early December 1944, and then followed a door to door battle with the British forces and the monarchist armies. Before a month had ended, the communists had been defeated and an unstable government of coalition was established. Continued tensions within this government led to a civil war in the year 1946. Greece was backed by Britain and later by the United States in terms of military support and economic aid. Between 1947 and 1948, the communist forces had conquered much of the Greece mainland and were able to move freely within the land. With the extensive material support from America and the reorganization, the Greek navy steadily took control over much of the mainland. Yugoslavia had to close her borders from the insurgent military in 1949 after it broke relationship with the Soviet Union. In 1949, a final offensive was launched by Marshal P. Alexander that forced the insurgents who were left back to flee across the border to the north in to the territories of the Greece neighbors or else they surrender. The civil war left about one hundred people killed and also resulted to major damages to the economy. More than twenty five thousand Greeks and many Macedonian Slavs were evacuated to the eastern bloc countries either by force or voluntarily while over seven hundred thousand people became internally displaced people in Greece and many more emigrated to, among other countries, Australia. This settlement after the war greatly expanded the Greece territory which had already started earlier in 1832. In 1947, a treaty in Paris was signed and it required Italy to surrender the Dodecanese islands to the Greece. These islands had the majority of inhabitants speaking Greece and were part of the last areas to be incorporated to the Greek state, except Cyprus which remained under possession of Britain until its independence later in 1960. Greeks ethnicity became more homogeneous after the war when more than twenty five thousand Albanians were expelled from Epirus. The remaining minorities of no significance were the Muslims in West Thrace and few Slavic speaking in the north. Greeks continued to claim more of the southern Albania where significant Greek population lived. Economic miracle for Greece: 1955-79) The Greek economic miracle implies the factual and impressive rate of social and economic development that occurred in Greece from the early of 1950s to the middle of the 1970s. The average rate of economic growth recorded between the year 1950 to 1973 was about seven percent which was the worlds second best after that of Japan in those times. The 1950s growth rate was the highest sometimes going above ten percent, almost nearing those of a modern tiger economy. This continued up to 1960s. The Greek people did not view it as a miracle because since the period after the war until the middle of the 1970s, it was a time of deep political divisions that resulted to military dictatorship between 1957 to 1964 and the Greeks did not see any positive economic change for this period of twenty years. Further more, growth initially only widened the economic gap between the few rich and the majority poor and this could only intensify political divisions. Between 1941 and 1944, the Axis occupation and the fighting with resistance groups had unexpected effects on the infrastructure and also on the Greeces economy. Given also that after the end of the first world war, Greece went in to civil war, its economy had drastically fallen by 1950. The Greece per capita income as a measure of its purchasing power fell, just like that of France, from 62 percent to about 40 percent in the year 1949 (Cranidlis, 97). Greece experienced a rapid recovery of its poor economic condition. This was as a result of a number of factors among them the stimulation from the Marshall plan, a fast devaluation of the Drachma, more foreign investments, significant industrial development especially the development of the chemical industry, development of the public services sector and development of tourism industry and a widespread construction activities coming as a result of enormous infrastructural project building and rebuilding in the Greek towns and cities. The construction activities are connected with the fast economic growth on the society and the development of its towns. This led to renewal of the urban through replacing the pleasant urban, consisting mainly of low rising houses and peoples homes, with a continuous set of concrete and block storey and skyscrapers in most key cities and towns. After 1950, economic growth consistently was better than that of many European countries in terms of annual growth. The only time there was economic stagnation was in the 1980s but it was counterbalanced when the Greek black economy evolved at the same time. The good economic performance made Greece advance its economy to enjoy a per capita income almost the same as that of other European Union partners like France and German (Krofas, 123). After end of the civil war, Greece sought to join hands with the western democracies by becoming a member of NATO in the year 1952. From this time to the late 1963, Greece was under conservative parties. In1964, the party called the Center Union led by George Papandreau was elected and remained in rule until July of 1965 before he was dismissed by king Constantine II, thereby resulting to a constitutional crisis. The fall of this government led to a series of coalition governments between the conservatives and rebel liberals. On April 1967, a group of colonels from the right wing seized power in a coup. They suppressed civil liberties , established special military courts and dissolved political parties. Thousands of political party opponents and those suspected to be communists were imprisoned or taken to exile to very remote Greek islands. United States was alleged to have supported junta and this caused the rise of anti- Americanism in the Greece during and immediately after the junta rule. However, the united states had already earned the animosity of communists in Greece long before. In 1974, a referendum resulted in abolishment of a monarchy and a new constitution was made and passed by the parliament on the 19th of June 1975. President T. Constantine was elected by parliament to head the republic. In the 1977 elections to the parliament, the New democracy party won for a second time with a majority seats. In 1980, Karamanlis who was the prime minister was elected to succeed T. Constantine as the president with George Rallis being elected as the prime minister to succeed Tsatsos. Greece joined the European Community, now called the European Union on 1st January 1981. It also elected the countrys first socialist government. In 1989, there were two rounds of parliamentary elections which both produced coalition governments that were weak and had limited mandates. Party leaders held back their support for those governments and elections were once again held in April. The new democracy party led by Constantine Mitsotakis won. In 1992, Samaras formed his own party after being fired from the position of a cabinet minister for Foreign affairs. He called the party the Political Spring. As a result of this division, the New democracy government collapsed and when new elections were held in September 1993, Papandreou returned to power. Papandreou resigned on January 17th of 1996 due to a protracted illness. He was then replaced as the countrys prime minster by the former minister of trade and industry by the name, Costas Simitis who consecutively won the elections in 1996 and also in 2000 before retiring in 2004. His successor was George Papandreou as PASOK leader. In March 2004, elections were held and New Democracy under the leadership of Costas Karamanlis who was a nephew to the former president saw the victory over the PASOK. Instead of waiting for normal elections that should have been held in March the year 2008, the government called for elections in September 2007 and the New Democracy once again won the majority vote in the parliament. Due to this repeated defeat, the PASOK underwent a party election in search of a new leader that saw Mr. Georgis Papandreau re-election as the party leader of the Socialist Party in Greece. Review of Economic Literature It is important to review the economic thoughts from both the Greek and the American writers and compare them in the perspective of the economic reconstruction of Greece. A good approach would be first reviewing the economic thought in the 1930s and 1940s and then that of the American technical experts who were either in Greece based American embassy or in the AMAG. (Lincoln, 64). Reviewing the plans by Batsis, Valvaresos and Zolotas is also of importance to acquire a clear thought about the economic miracle and general development for the Greece from very poor to one of the worlds best economies. A scrutiny of what the exact agenda of the AMAG and other aids to develop the Greece economy was, is of importance in shining light in to this issue. Establishing whether there was any difference between the American economic experts working with the AMAG and Americans working in the American embassy to Greece in Athens in terms of priorities and the paths to reconstruction is felt to be essential. This way, most questions of much concern to economic historians will be answered well and also valuable material towards making reconstructions in the history of economics will be unearthed, especially for the post second world war period in Greece The depression of economy in the whole world led the default in Greece in the year 1932and afterwards to the introduction of a quite successful system. The gross domestic product was 510 million dollars in the year 1931, then dropped to 330 million dollars in the year 1932, remained at the same stable low level in 1934 at 340 million dollars and drastically rose in the subsequent years of 1934 at 490 million dollars, 1935 at 510 million dollars and 1936 at 550 million dollars. Despite the economic success, the poor remained miserable due to the falling prices and the problem of the merchant class which was used to free trade and had problem with coping in the new trade conditions of exchange controls. Most Greek economists concentrated on writing and analyzing the economic success of their country and did very little on questioning the actual role of the American Mission Aid for Greece that it played in uplifting the economic situation of Greece. The economists made numerous economic publications such as books, journals, treatises, periodicals among others. The interventionists were most influential and they had studies in Germany in 1920s to 1930s. These economists espoused a development theory stage to which the Greek government ought to take to speed up the rate of economic development. It was based on the fact that the economy of Greece could not rely on private initiative alone. Most of them remained hostile to abstract thinking and viewed the dirigiste policies world over as evidence of the validity of their thesis. The liberals viewed the historical present hitherto as a parenthesis and had a believe that the whole world including Greece economy ought to have an international economic corporation. The liberals also supported that it was necessary for the state to intervene and as a result they came up with a frame upon which the Greece government should act upon in a liberal economy. The Marxists viewed the crash of 1929 as evidence for capitalism break down. Particularly in Greece, the imperialism of the great powers and the kings rule were to be overthrown by mass action for socialism to be established.

The Science Guys - Theories of Evolution :: essays research papers

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) Today, the name of Lamarck is associated merely with a discredited theory of heredity, the "inheritance of acquired traits." However, Charles Darwin, Lyell, Haeckel, and other early evolutionists acknowledged him as a great zoologist and as a forerunner of evolution. To be fair to Lamarck, we should mention that since the time of Linnaeus, few naturalists had considered the invertebrates worthy of study. The word "invertebrates" did not even exist at the time; Lamarck coined it. The invertebrate collections at the Musà ©e were enormous and rapidly growing, but poorly organized and classified. Although the professors at the Musà ©e were theoretically equal in rank, the professorship of "insects and worms" was definitely the least prestigious. But Lamarck took on the enormous challenge of learning -- and creating -- a new field of biology. The sheer number and diversity of invertebrates proved to be both a challenge and a rich source of knowledge. What Lamarck actually believed was more complex: organisms are not passively altered by their environment. Instead, a change in the environment causes changes in the needs of organisms living in that environment, which in turn causes changes in their behavior. Altered behavior leads to greater or lesser use of a given structure or organ; use would cause the structure to increase in size over several generations, whereas disuse would cause it to shrink or even disappear. This rule -- that use or disuse causes structures to enlarge or shrink -- Lamarck called the "First Law" in his book Philosophie zoologique. Lamarck's "Second Law" stated that all such changes were heritable. The result of these laws was the continuous, gradual change of all organisms, as they became adapted to their environments; the physiological needs of organisms, created by their interactions with the environment, drive Lamarckian evolution. Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) Carl Linnaeus, also known as Carl von Linnà © or Carolus Linnaeus, is often called the Father of Taxonomy. His system for naming, ranking, and classifying organisms is still in wide use today (with many changes). Erusmus Darwin He did discuss ideas that his grandson elaborated on sixty years later, such as how life evolved from a single common ancestor, forming "one living filament". He wrestled with the question of how one species could evolve into another. Although some of his ideas on how evolution might occur are quite close to those of Lamarck, Erasmus Darwin also talked about how competition and sexual selection could cause changes in species

Principles of Business

The Development of Economic Activity Human Beings produce and consume goods and services from the resources in their environment. It is primarily for the reason that humans are called ECONOMIC ANIMAL, because he or she has the ability to use his or her hands and brain to satisfy his or her immediate personal needs. These are looked at as basic needs; these needs are food, shelter and clothing (Economic Activity). Economic Activity means activities which results in the satisfaction of needs.In order to satisfy these needs, man engaged in certain economic activity such as farming, fishing, hunting, trade form, women stay home. Direct Production/ Direct Satisfaction of Wants Direct Production really means that human beings provide all their needs for themselves and their family without the aid of others; in other words, they do not depend on others to provide. Indirect Production/ Indirect Satisfaction of Wants Indirect Production means that human beings exchange their surplus by barter with others; in other words, human beings depend on others to do things for them  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Subsistence EconomySubsistence Economy – An economy which provide just enough to survive, but not to improve their way of life. BARTER SYSTEM Barter System is the exchange of goods or services for other goods and services without the use of money. ADVANTAGE OF BARTER SYSTEM * It allowed people to dispose of any surplus, they had at the same time obtain a variety of things they needed. * It enables persons to enjoy goods and services they could not produce. * Countries with foreign currency problems can get goods and services that they require. Countries that engage in trade can strengthen their political and cultural ties. DISADVANTAGE OF BARTER SYSTEM * Double or co-incidence of wants – No trade can take place unless there is double or co-incidence of wants; that is your trading partner has wh at you want and wants what you have. * Time Consumption – It could be challenging to find willing partners. * Spoilage – If an individual failed to find a suitable partner within a reasonable time ones wealth in goods could be destroyed. Unequal Exchange – There is the difficulty or unequal exchange where the values of some goods far outweigh the value of other goods. MONEY Money is any commodity that is generally acceptable and is used as a medium of exchange and as a measure of value CHARACTERISTICS OF MONEY * Acceptability – It must be readily acceptable by everyone * Durability – It should not wear out easily * Homogeneity – it features should be identical * Divisibility – Money should be able to be broken down into smaller units. Portability – It should be easy to carry around. FUNCTIONS OF MONEY * Medium of Exchange – Money makes the exchange of goods easier * Measure of Value – Money can be used to state pr ices of goods * Store of Value –   Money can be saved * Deferred Payment – Money can be earned at one time and spent at another. DIVISION OF LABOUR OR SPECIALIZATION Division of labour is sharing the work. The work is divided among persons and they specialize in doing their part of the process, specialization comes as a part of this. DIVISION OF LABOUR BY PRODUCTDivision of labour by product means people can do what they can do best in exchange for money and then using the money earned to buy the goods and services of others. DIVISION OF LABOUR BY PROCESS Division of labour by process means by organizing production into many stages workers become more specialized in their work and consequently they produce more. ADVANTAGES OF DIVISION OF LABOUR OR SPECIALIZATION * Workers become more expert in their jobs * Jobs become simpler and easier to learn * Output per person increases * Machinery and automation can be used Workers can more easily change jobs * Unit cost are re duced DISADVANTAGES OF DIVISION OF LABOUR OR SPECIALIZATION * Work can be tedious and boring thus resulting in poor worker motivation and the likelihood of a higher rate of absentism * Workers creativity is limited * Greater use of machinery can cause unemployment * Production can easily be stopped by strikes ECONOMIC SYSTEM Economic System refers to the method by which a nation or country plan to utilize its resources in order to achieve economic growth and to benefit its citizens. MAJOR ECONOMIC SYSTEMEvery country is given by an economic system as each system has to decide how to allocate its resources to meet the needs of the citizens. This is a problem because the worlds resources are limited in supply and mans wants are unlimited. The economic is therefore deciding how to best to share these scarce resources. The decision of what to produce or what choices to make from the limited resources available is influenced by the political situation within which the decision is made. I n order to share resources all economic must answer to all these problems. PROBLEMS OF ECONOMIC SYSTEM FACE Limited Resources * Man wants are unlimited * Scarcity * How to share resources * Choice / decision No two countries are organized in the same way but they all have to solve three basic problems as follows * What should be produced? * How much to produce? * How is it to be produce? * Where is it to be produce? There are four different economic systems which answer the foregoing questions. * Subsistence Economy * Free Market Economy {Alternative name – Capitalists, Laissez-faire} * Controlled Economy {Alternative name – Collectivists, Communist, Command Control} * Mixed SUBSISTENCE ECONOMYA subsistence economy is one where there is little specialization and little trade. In such an economy people tend to live in family groups and grow most of their own food. Free Market Economy In a free market economy there is little or no government interference in the economy. It is based on the private ownership of the factors of production and the means of the distributing goods and services. Market forces are allowed to determine how resources are allocated. Examples of Free Market Economy is Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago, United States of America and Hong Kong Advantages of Free market Economy Individuals are free to make choices as to what they want to produce, where they who they want to work for, what price they are going to charge for labour and also the price of their finished products * Customers can decide what to produce by influencing market prices * When consumers demands certain goods and services, they send messages to the producers who in turn will produce and meet the demands and thus satisfy the preference of consumers Disadvantages of Free market Economy * It encourages inequalities of wealth The more powerful businesses may buy out the smaller ones thus reducing competition * Wealthy people are more able to purchase and influence t he market than smaller ones * Companies may be tempted to restrict supplies to keep prices high Planned / Controlled / Collectivist Economy In a controlled economy all economic decisions are made by the government. The state decides what to produce, how it is to be produced and how it should be allocated to consumers; in other words, the state decides what the community needs and therefore demand is not influenced by the consumer.Examples of Controlled economies are Cuba and China. Advantages of Controlled Economy * State   control eliminates wasteful competition * The state will provide goods that private enterprise will be unwilling to provide * It is impossible for private monopolies to develop * The state ensures that the needs of the community are met Disadvantages of Controlled Economy * Free enterprise and competition are discouraged * Creativeness and efficiency are not encouraged MIXED ECONOMY Mixed economy is a combination of elements from free economy and a controlled e conomy.There is a public sector controlled by the government which provides goods and services that the state feels it can manage most efficiently and a private sector in which individuals risk capital in producing goods and services for profit. ADVANTAGES OF MIXED ECONOMY * Individuals have freedom of choice * Government can intervene to protect citizens from unfair monopoly * Both the private and public sector may unite in producing goods. DISADVANTAGES OF MIXED ECONOMY * It is possible for private monopolies to develop Too many government regulations may discourage persons from owning a business GLOBALIZATION Globalization can be seen as the intensification and spread of world wide social, economic, cultural and political relationships among countries. BENEFITS OF GLOBALIZATION * Provision of high quality goods and services at a cheaper rate which is achieved through economies of scale * In contributing to globalization firms not only provide goods and services economically but t hey also provide employment for people IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATIONThe impact of globalization has some adverse effect on small economies of the Caribbean. Large international firms that can produce high quality goods and services at a cheaper cost set challenges to small firms that are producing similar goods and services PRIMARY PRODUCTION Primary Production includes activity which takes the natural resources from the earth, that is the extraction of raw materials and the growing of food. Example Mining, fishing farming and forestry Secondary ProductionSecondary production involves manufacturing, processing and construction which transform raw materials into finish or semi-finished goods. Example baking, ship building and office construction. Tertiary Production Tertiary production includes the provision of serves example Hairdressing. PRIVATE AND PUBLIC SECTOR The private sector is that part of the economy that is owned and controlled by private individuals and firms. Funds for the es tablishment of private business operation are obtained through * Loans from Bank or Financial Institution * Personal Savings Financing from family and friends The public sector refers to business in the economy that are owned by government for the benefit of the public citizens. The main motive is to provide goods and services to benefit the country. Funds will mainly com from taxation. Private sector enterprise will involve in manufacturing, mining etc and they are able to produce or provide the services they wish but they must abide by rules and regulation establish by the government, on the other hand, the public sector relies on the private sector for taxation to maintain the operations of the country.In most Caribbean countries we say that there is a mixed economy because some businesses are privately owned and others are owned by the state ADVANTAGES OF PRIVATE SECTOR TO A SOCIETY * Public Sector protects citizens from exploitation by powerful monopolies * Public sector provid es employment for many persons * Public sector contributes to the economic lives of the country PUBLIC BUSINESS UNDERTAKINGS Public Corporations: These are government or state owned businesses that are primarily run by Central government.Municipal Undertakings: These are government owned businesses that are run primarily by the Local Government. These include market, parks and beaches Government Undertakings: These departments carry out special functions such as education, health and finance REASONS FOR ESTABLISHING A BUSINESS * To earn a income * To make a profit- which is the result when a firm’s sales revenue is greater than its total costs. Profit is important because it enables business to survive and grow, it also provides the owner with a return for taking the risk of losing money they have invested. To provide employment to persons in and around the community * To expand production and increase the yearly sales of the firm * To produce a product that is either a good or service to the community * To have the satisfaction of being one’s own boss SOLE TRADERSHIP OR SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP The sole tradership or sole proprietorship is defined as a one man business, this is so because he or she enters business on his or her own, therefore bearing the risk of the business and thus entitled to all the profits.Even when the sole trader invites someone else to assist in the running of the business, these individuals would be employees. They do not share in ownership of the business and the owner is responsible for decisions made concerning the business. * Sole tradership is very easy to setup and operate. * It does not require any legal paperwork or registration. * Sole Trader is an unincorporated business, which means that the owner and business are one and same in the eyes of the law. This means that he conducts in his own name, his business is not separate from him. Sole Trader has unlimited liability which means that their personal assets can be clamed to settle the debts of their business that is why in the case of bankruptcy the sole trader stands to lose his/ her personal belongings, if the business assets cannot cover his/her debts. In order to finance the business the sole trader may: *   Use his personal savings to start the business. * The sole trader may also borrow funds from family members or friends. * The sole trader may also get funds from financial institution such as credit unions, commercial banks or government sources as the business progresses. The sole trader may also reinvest or plough back some of the profits made in the business. The sole Trader may sell ownership of his business to someone else. If he/she dies then the business no longer exists. ADVANTAGES OF SOLE TRADER * The business is simple to start and usually requires only a small amount of capital * Profits are not shared * Decisions are made promptly and the new ideas put in place quickly * The owner retains personal control over the direct ion and growth of his/her business DISADVANTAGES OF SOLE TRADER It is difficult to access capital if the sole trader wants to expand his business * The sole trader bears all the losses * The sole trader may have to work long hours and may not be able to take vacation when he wants to do so * Unlimited Liability , therefore in the case of bankruptcy he may lose his personal belongings to claim its debts * There is lack of continuity if the owner dies PARTNERSHIP An ordinary partnership is an association of two to twenty persons who are in business together with a view to earning a profit.This type of partnership may have general or active partners who are involved in the day to day operations of the business. A Sleeping partner is a partner who may be willing to introduce capital into a business but may not wish to take an active part in the running of the business In an ordinary partnership all partners have unlimited liability which means that they stand to lose not only their inve stment capital but also their personal assets. It is possible to have a limited partnership bit at least one partner mush accept unlimited liability.Partnership is formed amongst partners, partners may share in the management of the business or may serve as the manager or they may employ someone to manage the business Partners are free to decide whatever arrangement they like amongst themselves as to what rules will govern their organization. Partners have a written arrangement or deed. A partnership deed sets out the rights of each partner as to the division of profits. The deed sets out: * The name of the business and the date the business started * The type of business and the location of the business Details of each partner * The amount of capital each partner invested * How profits to be shared * The responsibility of each partner in the business In financing a partnership business all partners pool their savings together, loans and retained. Profits are shared by the deed draw n up by the partners, the absence of the deed means that profits are shared equally. In a partnership all partners are held personally responsible for all debts of the business. If one partner cannot fulfill his obligations then the other partner will bear all the losses. A partnership may be terminated: When partner or partners decide to sell their share of the partnership to someone else. When this occurs a new partners are brought in. * If it becomes insolvent or bankrupt * When all parties agree to terminate the business ADVANTAGES OF PARTNERSHIP * It is easy to form as there are few legal formalities * More capital is available to foster growth and development. * Workload can be shared amongst partners DISADVANTAGES OF PARTNERSHIP * If a partner makes a mistake all partners stand to lose * Each partner is liable for the debts of the business * Possible disagreements between partners Membership limit of twenty which restricts resources of the business CO-OPERATIVES A cooperative is a form of business that is owned and controlled by a group of persons who have a common interest and who have an equal say in operation. Types of Cooperatives * Producer Cooperative: In this type of cooperative society members are in their business of producing example in a farming community * Buyers Cooperatives: This is a type of cooperative in which persons who use a particular good in their business operations come together to purchase that good in large quantities and gain benefits of discounts. Financial Cooperatives: This is a service oriented society. It brings together persons who have a common interest. The aim is for members to pool their resources in the provision of service * Workers Cooperative: Are businesses that are owned and run by their own workforces. Example the crews of a bus company Cooperative is governed by a general meeting. The meeting is held annually and it is at this meeting that a committee is appointed to handle the day to day affairs of the coope rative.The cooperative is controlled by its members. Each member contributes to share capital of the cooperative. Members finance the cooperative through the purchase of shares Shareholders receives dividends if the cooperative makes a profit from its operation. The amount of dividend is related to the number of shares held. Dividends are generally small, since the major goal is not to make a profit but to provide a service to its members. Earnings from a cooperative are not totally consumed in the payment of dividend.Most of these are ploughed back into the cooperatives to finance operational needs identified by the members. ADVANTAGES OF CO-OPERATIVES * Members benefit from the pooling of funds for the purpose of lending to other members * Members have equal say in the operation of business as well as in the decision making of the cooperatives * Members are the owners of the cooperative society * Employment is created within the organization DISADVANTAGES OF CO-OPERATIVES * Profit s may be small or non existent * Shortage or lack of capital may inhibit growth and cause problems Principles of Business The Development of Economic Activity Human Beings produce and consume goods and services from the resources in their environment. It is primarily for the reason that humans are called ECONOMIC ANIMAL, because he or she has the ability to use his or her hands and brain to satisfy his or her immediate personal needs. These are looked at as basic needs; these needs are food, shelter and clothing (Economic Activity). Economic Activity means activities which results in the satisfaction of needs.In order to satisfy these needs, man engaged in certain economic activity such as farming, fishing, hunting, trade form, women stay home. Direct Production/ Direct Satisfaction of Wants Direct Production really means that human beings provide all their needs for themselves and their family without the aid of others; in other words, they do not depend on others to provide. Indirect Production/ Indirect Satisfaction of Wants Indirect Production means that human beings exchange their surplus by barter with others; in other words, human beings depend on others to do things for them  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Subsistence EconomySubsistence Economy – An economy which provide just enough to survive, but not to improve their way of life. BARTER SYSTEM Barter System is the exchange of goods or services for other goods and services without the use of money. ADVANTAGE OF BARTER SYSTEM * It allowed people to dispose of any surplus, they had at the same time obtain a variety of things they needed. * It enables persons to enjoy goods and services they could not produce. * Countries with foreign currency problems can get goods and services that they require. Countries that engage in trade can strengthen their political and cultural ties. DISADVANTAGE OF BARTER SYSTEM * Double or co-incidence of wants – No trade can take place unless there is double or co-incidence of wants; that is your trading partner has wh at you want and wants what you have. * Time Consumption – It could be challenging to find willing partners. * Spoilage – If an individual failed to find a suitable partner within a reasonable time ones wealth in goods could be destroyed. Unequal Exchange – There is the difficulty or unequal exchange where the values of some goods far outweigh the value of other goods. MONEY Money is any commodity that is generally acceptable and is used as a medium of exchange and as a measure of value CHARACTERISTICS OF MONEY * Acceptability – It must be readily acceptable by everyone * Durability – It should not wear out easily * Homogeneity – it features should be identical * Divisibility – Money should be able to be broken down into smaller units. Portability – It should be easy to carry around. FUNCTIONS OF MONEY * Medium of Exchange – Money makes the exchange of goods easier * Measure of Value – Money can be used to state pr ices of goods * Store of Value –   Money can be saved * Deferred Payment – Money can be earned at one time and spent at another. DIVISION OF LABOUR OR SPECIALIZATION Division of labour is sharing the work. The work is divided among persons and they specialize in doing their part of the process, specialization comes as a part of this. DIVISION OF LABOUR BY PRODUCTDivision of labour by product means people can do what they can do best in exchange for money and then using the money earned to buy the goods and services of others. DIVISION OF LABOUR BY PROCESS Division of labour by process means by organizing production into many stages workers become more specialized in their work and consequently they produce more. ADVANTAGES OF DIVISION OF LABOUR OR SPECIALIZATION * Workers become more expert in their jobs * Jobs become simpler and easier to learn * Output per person increases * Machinery and automation can be used Workers can more easily change jobs * Unit cost are re duced DISADVANTAGES OF DIVISION OF LABOUR OR SPECIALIZATION * Work can be tedious and boring thus resulting in poor worker motivation and the likelihood of a higher rate of absentism * Workers creativity is limited * Greater use of machinery can cause unemployment * Production can easily be stopped by strikes ECONOMIC SYSTEM Economic System refers to the method by which a nation or country plan to utilize its resources in order to achieve economic growth and to benefit its citizens. MAJOR ECONOMIC SYSTEMEvery country is given by an economic system as each system has to decide how to allocate its resources to meet the needs of the citizens. This is a problem because the worlds resources are limited in supply and mans wants are unlimited. The economic is therefore deciding how to best to share these scarce resources. The decision of what to produce or what choices to make from the limited resources available is influenced by the political situation within which the decision is made. I n order to share resources all economic must answer to all these problems. PROBLEMS OF ECONOMIC SYSTEM FACE Limited Resources * Man wants are unlimited * Scarcity * How to share resources * Choice / decision No two countries are organized in the same way but they all have to solve three basic problems as follows * What should be produced? * How much to produce? * How is it to be produce? * Where is it to be produce? There are four different economic systems which answer the foregoing questions. * Subsistence Economy * Free Market Economy {Alternative name – Capitalists, Laissez-faire} * Controlled Economy {Alternative name – Collectivists, Communist, Command Control} * Mixed SUBSISTENCE ECONOMYA subsistence economy is one where there is little specialization and little trade. In such an economy people tend to live in family groups and grow most of their own food. Free Market Economy In a free market economy there is little or no government interference in the economy. It is based on the private ownership of the factors of production and the means of the distributing goods and services. Market forces are allowed to determine how resources are allocated. Examples of Free Market Economy is Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago, United States of America and Hong Kong Advantages of Free market Economy Individuals are free to make choices as to what they want to produce, where they who they want to work for, what price they are going to charge for labour and also the price of their finished products * Customers can decide what to produce by influencing market prices * When consumers demands certain goods and services, they send messages to the producers who in turn will produce and meet the demands and thus satisfy the preference of consumers Disadvantages of Free market Economy * It encourages inequalities of wealth The more powerful businesses may buy out the smaller ones thus reducing competition * Wealthy people are more able to purchase and influence t he market than smaller ones * Companies may be tempted to restrict supplies to keep prices high Planned / Controlled / Collectivist Economy In a controlled economy all economic decisions are made by the government. The state decides what to produce, how it is to be produced and how it should be allocated to consumers; in other words, the state decides what the community needs and therefore demand is not influenced by the consumer.Examples of Controlled economies are Cuba and China. Advantages of Controlled Economy * State   control eliminates wasteful competition * The state will provide goods that private enterprise will be unwilling to provide * It is impossible for private monopolies to develop * The state ensures that the needs of the community are met Disadvantages of Controlled Economy * Free enterprise and competition are discouraged * Creativeness and efficiency are not encouraged MIXED ECONOMY Mixed economy is a combination of elements from free economy and a controlled e conomy.There is a public sector controlled by the government which provides goods and services that the state feels it can manage most efficiently and a private sector in which individuals risk capital in producing goods and services for profit. ADVANTAGES OF MIXED ECONOMY * Individuals have freedom of choice * Government can intervene to protect citizens from unfair monopoly * Both the private and public sector may unite in producing goods. DISADVANTAGES OF MIXED ECONOMY * It is possible for private monopolies to develop Too many government regulations may discourage persons from owning a business GLOBALIZATION Globalization can be seen as the intensification and spread of world wide social, economic, cultural and political relationships among countries. BENEFITS OF GLOBALIZATION * Provision of high quality goods and services at a cheaper rate which is achieved through economies of scale * In contributing to globalization firms not only provide goods and services economically but t hey also provide employment for people IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATIONThe impact of globalization has some adverse effect on small economies of the Caribbean. Large international firms that can produce high quality goods and services at a cheaper cost set challenges to small firms that are producing similar goods and services PRIMARY PRODUCTION Primary Production includes activity which takes the natural resources from the earth, that is the extraction of raw materials and the growing of food. Example Mining, fishing farming and forestry Secondary ProductionSecondary production involves manufacturing, processing and construction which transform raw materials into finish or semi-finished goods. Example baking, ship building and office construction. Tertiary Production Tertiary production includes the provision of serves example Hairdressing. PRIVATE AND PUBLIC SECTOR The private sector is that part of the economy that is owned and controlled by private individuals and firms. Funds for the es tablishment of private business operation are obtained through * Loans from Bank or Financial Institution * Personal Savings Financing from family and friends The public sector refers to business in the economy that are owned by government for the benefit of the public citizens. The main motive is to provide goods and services to benefit the country. Funds will mainly com from taxation. Private sector enterprise will involve in manufacturing, mining etc and they are able to produce or provide the services they wish but they must abide by rules and regulation establish by the government, on the other hand, the public sector relies on the private sector for taxation to maintain the operations of the country.In most Caribbean countries we say that there is a mixed economy because some businesses are privately owned and others are owned by the state ADVANTAGES OF PRIVATE SECTOR TO A SOCIETY * Public Sector protects citizens from exploitation by powerful monopolies * Public sector provid es employment for many persons * Public sector contributes to the economic lives of the country PUBLIC BUSINESS UNDERTAKINGS Public Corporations: These are government or state owned businesses that are primarily run by Central government.Municipal Undertakings: These are government owned businesses that are run primarily by the Local Government. These include market, parks and beaches Government Undertakings: These departments carry out special functions such as education, health and finance REASONS FOR ESTABLISHING A BUSINESS * To earn a income * To make a profit- which is the result when a firm’s sales revenue is greater than its total costs. Profit is important because it enables business to survive and grow, it also provides the owner with a return for taking the risk of losing money they have invested. To provide employment to persons in and around the community * To expand production and increase the yearly sales of the firm * To produce a product that is either a good or service to the community * To have the satisfaction of being one’s own boss SOLE TRADERSHIP OR SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP The sole tradership or sole proprietorship is defined as a one man business, this is so because he or she enters business on his or her own, therefore bearing the risk of the business and thus entitled to all the profits.Even when the sole trader invites someone else to assist in the running of the business, these individuals would be employees. They do not share in ownership of the business and the owner is responsible for decisions made concerning the business. * Sole tradership is very easy to setup and operate. * It does not require any legal paperwork or registration. * Sole Trader is an unincorporated business, which means that the owner and business are one and same in the eyes of the law. This means that he conducts in his own name, his business is not separate from him. Sole Trader has unlimited liability which means that their personal assets can be clamed to settle the debts of their business that is why in the case of bankruptcy the sole trader stands to lose his/ her personal belongings, if the business assets cannot cover his/her debts. In order to finance the business the sole trader may: *   Use his personal savings to start the business. * The sole trader may also borrow funds from family members or friends. * The sole trader may also get funds from financial institution such as credit unions, commercial banks or government sources as the business progresses. The sole trader may also reinvest or plough back some of the profits made in the business. The sole Trader may sell ownership of his business to someone else. If he/she dies then the business no longer exists. ADVANTAGES OF SOLE TRADER * The business is simple to start and usually requires only a small amount of capital * Profits are not shared * Decisions are made promptly and the new ideas put in place quickly * The owner retains personal control over the direct ion and growth of his/her business DISADVANTAGES OF SOLE TRADER It is difficult to access capital if the sole trader wants to expand his business * The sole trader bears all the losses * The sole trader may have to work long hours and may not be able to take vacation when he wants to do so * Unlimited Liability , therefore in the case of bankruptcy he may lose his personal belongings to claim its debts * There is lack of continuity if the owner dies PARTNERSHIP An ordinary partnership is an association of two to twenty persons who are in business together with a view to earning a profit.This type of partnership may have general or active partners who are involved in the day to day operations of the business. A Sleeping partner is a partner who may be willing to introduce capital into a business but may not wish to take an active part in the running of the business In an ordinary partnership all partners have unlimited liability which means that they stand to lose not only their inve stment capital but also their personal assets. It is possible to have a limited partnership bit at least one partner mush accept unlimited liability.Partnership is formed amongst partners, partners may share in the management of the business or may serve as the manager or they may employ someone to manage the business Partners are free to decide whatever arrangement they like amongst themselves as to what rules will govern their organization. Partners have a written arrangement or deed. A partnership deed sets out the rights of each partner as to the division of profits. The deed sets out: * The name of the business and the date the business started * The type of business and the location of the business Details of each partner * The amount of capital each partner invested * How profits to be shared * The responsibility of each partner in the business In financing a partnership business all partners pool their savings together, loans and retained. Profits are shared by the deed draw n up by the partners, the absence of the deed means that profits are shared equally. In a partnership all partners are held personally responsible for all debts of the business. If one partner cannot fulfill his obligations then the other partner will bear all the losses. A partnership may be terminated: When partner or partners decide to sell their share of the partnership to someone else. When this occurs a new partners are brought in. * If it becomes insolvent or bankrupt * When all parties agree to terminate the business ADVANTAGES OF PARTNERSHIP * It is easy to form as there are few legal formalities * More capital is available to foster growth and development. * Workload can be shared amongst partners DISADVANTAGES OF PARTNERSHIP * If a partner makes a mistake all partners stand to lose * Each partner is liable for the debts of the business * Possible disagreements between partners Membership limit of twenty which restricts resources of the business CO-OPERATIVES A cooperative is a form of business that is owned and controlled by a group of persons who have a common interest and who have an equal say in operation. Types of Cooperatives * Producer Cooperative: In this type of cooperative society members are in their business of producing example in a farming community * Buyers Cooperatives: This is a type of cooperative in which persons who use a particular good in their business operations come together to purchase that good in large quantities and gain benefits of discounts. Financial Cooperatives: This is a service oriented society. It brings together persons who have a common interest. The aim is for members to pool their resources in the provision of service * Workers Cooperative: Are businesses that are owned and run by their own workforces. Example the crews of a bus company Cooperative is governed by a general meeting. The meeting is held annually and it is at this meeting that a committee is appointed to handle the day to day affairs of the coope rative.The cooperative is controlled by its members. Each member contributes to share capital of the cooperative. Members finance the cooperative through the purchase of shares Shareholders receives dividends if the cooperative makes a profit from its operation. The amount of dividend is related to the number of shares held. Dividends are generally small, since the major goal is not to make a profit but to provide a service to its members. Earnings from a cooperative are not totally consumed in the payment of dividend.Most of these are ploughed back into the cooperatives to finance operational needs identified by the members. ADVANTAGES OF CO-OPERATIVES * Members benefit from the pooling of funds for the purpose of lending to other members * Members have equal say in the operation of business as well as in the decision making of the cooperatives * Members are the owners of the cooperative society * Employment is created within the organization DISADVANTAGES OF CO-OPERATIVES * Profit s may be small or non existent * Shortage or lack of capital may inhibit growth and cause problems